... Organisms^1.1

for present purposes organism means human organism

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... idiom^1.2

Scientific curiosity used to be of philosophical interest but somehow, the requirements of physical theories alienated philosophical concerns that seemed to belong to a different category, that is, all that can be classified as human experience. Human experience is that elusive sense of being in the world with all that it entails; notions of beliefs, hope, intentions, mind. This vocabulary seems to capture something that philosophers would say is intuitive about our state of mind. For many philosophers it seems that these words capture something essential about being human, something that would be lost if we were to abandon this language and adopt a purely physical idiom. It may be that the sense of privacy that seems to be attached to mentalist language holds a kind of magic that inspires awe, the kind of awe that we feel witnessing a magic trick. Once the trick is explained some may say that the magic is lost and that we have lost something essential. But could it be that the cleverness of the stunt inspires awe as well? It could be a matter of taste for it seems that in addition to the idea that there is a category of phenomena that can only be described using private language, philosophers of language have presumed that language is one of these concerns that belong to the type of human experience that cannot be fully described in terms of a physical theory. This may be why philosophers of language have clung to so much of a language that has been inherited from the ancient Greeks.

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... behavior^1.3

Primate calls originate mostly from the forebrain limbic area, specifically the hippocampus, amygdala and cingulate cortex and hypothalamus. The linguistic ability in humans is usually associated with Broca's area clustered around the Sylvian fissure, that separates the temporal lobe from the parietal and frontal lobe, roughly behind the prefrontal cortex, rostral to the premotor area, and Wernicke's area roughly situated with the superior and middle temporal gyrus. The midline areas are usually associated with the initiation of speech, mostly controlled from the supplementary motor cortex and the arousal/attentional control in co mprehension and production of speech through Wernicke's area [18].

It also has been shown that the ability to talk is dependent on cortical motor functions while primate calls are not [35]. But the relevance of primate calls in the production of speech cannot be so easily dismissed. Uwe Jurgen of the German Primate Centre, raises this point with the suggestion that primate calls may be involved in the production of speech, or at least that both functions have common cortical structures. Also, Broca's area is not entirely necessary for the production of language. Moreover, it has been shown, from experiments, that primate calls are genetically pre-programmed in their acoustic structure, which supports Pinker's claims, while speech production rely on learned motor functions. However Jurgen is careful about the implications of these finding:

In conclusion, we may say that human speech and monkey call production do not rely on completely different neural systems. There is a set of brain structures common to both. What distinguishes the central speech system from the monkey vocalization system is that on top of the common set of brain structures, a number of additional structures known to be concerned with motor learning come into play. Their involvement seems to be established during phylogeny by strengthening connections between learning-related and more elementary motor structures in the sense that areas connected only indirectly in the monkey become directly connected in man. -Jurgen, 2000, p.11-

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... incoherent^1.4

From The Simpsons, animated T.V. series on Fox Cable

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... sucks^1.5

idem

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... gay^1.6

From some child in my building

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... nature^1.7

The perceptual cues we are referring to are the kind reported by G. Rizzolatti, L. Fogassi and V. Gallese [53] from studies done on chimps. Chimps are made to perform a manual task while the stimuli are tracked through the ventral premotor area. In turn, the researcher performs a similar manual task while the chimp is watching and while the stimuli are still being recorded. Results show that there is a mirroring effect in neural activity involved with the activity of performing and witnessing a task, hence suggesting a kind of empathic response in being exposed to the actions of others.

We assume that effects produced by speech are empathic effects. What is triggered in observing an action is not an exact mapping of what is triggered for the individual that performed the task, however what is triggered are the individual's own synaptic structures involved in doing and observing the task. But we also assume that sensorely immediate actions such as walking can be correlated more closely in terms of synaptic mapping in individuals than less sensorially immediate actions such as the use of particular vocables.

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... English.^1.8

The observation of a change in language version can only be made in the future, when language users are no longer intimately connected to the version in question.

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... produce^1.9

The SVT includes the nasal cavity, oral cavity, the velum, the tongue, the pharynx, the epiglottis, the hyoid, the larynx and the trachea. The particular shape of it in humans allows movements of the tongue that can produce abrupt changes in the cross-sectional area of the SVT allowing for vowel sounds such as [i], [u] and [a], and velar consonance such as [g] and [k]. Moreover, the capacity for the velum to seal the nasal cavity allows non-nasal speech [41]. These sounds are not matched in other primates, though we do share with them innate neural functions that are particularly sensitive to the sounds that we produce; this feature is shared by other species such as crickets, frogs and monkeys. Much like these species, we have neural functions that are able to discriminate and categorize automatically into discrete patterns of formant frequencies and phonations. [p] will belong to one, so will [b] and [a] etc.

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...[41] ^1.10

One of the most important ways by which we access each other's speech patterns is with the oral tuning around the vowel [i]. The non-nasal utterance of the vowel [i] can be recognized across different lengths of the supralaryngeal air way that changes the pitch contour of speech. The vowel [u] is also used in recognizing speech, though not as efficiently as [i]. Both of these vowels are present in all human languages. The key in recognizing speech is in the non-nasal enunciation of vowels. Nasalization increases the error of vowel recognition from 5 to 50 percent [41].

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... vocables^1.11

by meta we mean a representative for vocables of a type rather than a specific vocable or utterance.

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...[47].^2.1

The following is taken from ``Language and Intelligent Understanding without Semantic Theory'' that I published with R.E. Jennings in the ``Canadian Artificial Intelligence'' (CAI) magazine in Automn 2000.

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... another.^2.2

Ultimately all linguistic practices must be traceable to non-linguistic practices through such exploitation of incidental causal features of pre- and proto-linguistic structures.

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... language^2.3

notice that we do not say the language: they do not acquire ours, but their own.

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... round.^2.4

ideas and examples in this subsection are from Jennings' The Semantic Illusion paper, to be published in A. Irvine and K. Peacock. Mistakes of Reason. forthcoming.

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... ice^2.5

The example is owed to Charles Travis.

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... alteration.^4.1

In its earliest uses, the adjective internecine referred to a struggle that is mutually destructive, such as the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta. Possibly from some earlier faulty understanding of pre-Hellenic politics, possibly through some confusion involving the noun niece, American usage has treated the word as though it meant intrafamilial. To which Merriam-Webster [4] says:

From the latin internecinus, from internecare to destroy, kill, from inter- + necare to kill, from nec-, nex violent death - more at NOXIOUS// Date: 1663 1 : marked by slaughter : DEADLY; especially : mutually destructive 2 : of, relating to, or involving conflict within a group (bitter internecine feuds)

Although Americans use internecine to mean within a family or group the use of the word with this meaning is almost entirely restricted to environments mentioning conflict, as, for example, the expressioninternecine dispute. (We hear no auspicious references to internecine picnics.) This is a dramatic example, though this odd, even mysterious restriction of use is paralleled in other sectors (from R.E. Jennings, in conversation).

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... systems.^4.2

There is room here for a metaphor. A first hearing might suggest something along the lines of Quine's so-called fabric [49]. Quine describes an interconnectivity between experience and logical vocabulary; how one affects the other in an intricately ``woven'' manner. Refer to appendix A for a short comparison between Quine's fabric metaphor and our general approach.

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... system^4.3

a system that has had sufficient time to settle to a stable state

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... glass^5.1

We define Ising spin glass in ``The Ising Model'' chapter

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... 12)^7.1

This picture is taken from The Human Brain Coloring Book. See the bibliography for a more complete reference.

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... feedback^7.2

In the shift from naturally produced synaptic effects, that is, effects generated by being exposed to perceptual cues, to artificially produced ones, that is, neural effects produced endogenously, there is a temptation to infer the idea of deliberateness. Deliberateness is related to a state in which an organism can generate behavior without seemingly being reactive, that is, without having been immediately stimulated by a related event. Most organisms can motivate a chain of events, a cat can jump on a lap without the active coercion of its owner. It is that kind of deliberateness that is discussed a kind of self motivated activity that is seemingly internally generated.

The study of synaptic effects and their workings suggests that deliberateness may be the consequence of a complex interaction with one feature that may be responsible for internally generated neural structures. To be deliberate about an action means that some synaptic effects are stimulated such that some activity will result. However, not just any activity will do, so not just any synaptic effects are stimulated. These synaptic effects are a rehearsal of the activity to come a kind of simulation before the fact. This simulation can occur because neurons are two-way units that can be stimulated directly from input patterns and from output patterns. The output pattern is a result of resonance or feedback, that is an echo of the input pattern.

Feedback, resonance, recurrence, reentry are concepts that have slightly different connotation in different fields of studies but they are all synonymous and refer to a particular feature of complex interactions. The most general definition is found in the description of non-linear dynamics such as catastrophic events. It states that feedback is a functional iteration, that is the result of a function becomes the input value for the serial iteration of the same function. In systems, feedback can rapidly get out of control as in the distortion effects sometimes generated by a loudspeaker that feeds back into a microphone. It can also generate stability as in the case of a thermostat that regulates the temperature in a house. A temperature above a fixed point leads to cooling while anything below it leads to heating[24].

Given a strong or well worn input pattern, resonance can be prolonged or strengthened from partially similar input patterns. The output pattern can then be generated given loosely similar input patterns. Indexical effects are then generated increasingly outside from their natural production. As the endogenous pattern is sustained through multiple input patterns it is possible to generate the original indexical effects on command. We can imagine that in the absence of original auditory and visual cues, resonating auditory discriminations may fade or adopt novel features. This can explain how throwing behavior give rise to pointing behaviors, how string of vocalization can become divorced from the natural context of production and become functionally extended.

Resonance or feedback is a key feature in the dynamics of systems in evolution. Feedback occurs as constituents impact on each other. Negotiation between unions and management rely on feedback to reach an agreement. An agreement pushes the system in a state of equilibrium. Prior to the accord union members may hover between a state of strike and a state of work. As negotiations proceed the system is in a state of criticality as it is not in any ordered state at all. Contracts are drawn up based on items that both party recognizes. The end product is often quite different than what both party had intended as they imagine outcomes before it happens.

Feedback enables simulation. Without feedback it is unlikely that particular synaptic pattern could be sustained for any period of time. Moreover, the retention of information would be impossible.

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... mammal.^7.3

The illustration originates with David Frost Frost over Europe, 1970's where, in a fictional news program, the news presenter's text is illustrated as it is spoken by a projected image that is shown simultaneously as the text is presented. The over-illustration accelerates as the reading progresses, until they are shown at a rate of one per word at the end of the broadcast. The associated images accompanying the final stringLord Privy Seal are, as in our example, a conventional image of Jesus, an image of an outhouse, and a circus image of the marine mammal. The example originates with R.E.Jennings.

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... sufficient.^8.1

Researchers in the field of neurobiology have identified a class of neurons the work of which is to modify, coordinate, integration, facilitation, and inhibition between all sensory input and sensory output. These are the so-called interneurons[19]. They are a class of neurons whose cell structure has no direct contact with peripheral structures, that is, receptors and effectors. They are multipolar which is to say that they are characterized by one axon and two or more dendrites. Multipolar neurons are the most common neurons and are found throughout the nervous system. Interneurons are the source of the richness and seemingly endless array of responses to our environment.

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... tomorrow)^8.2

This example was provided by R.E. Jennings

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... specialized.^8.3

We know that aphasia is a pathology that affects several aspect of speech depending on the area of the brain that has been damaged. Damage to Broca's area impairs speech production while damage in Wernicke's area will affect speech production. But these are not the only form of aphasia. Damage in the right hemisphere of the brain can affect the production and comprehension of jokes, puns, prosodic flow, and inferential effects. Though some damage in specific areas of the brain may yield different pathologies, it is, non-the-less difficult to differentiate between types of aphasia. This is because most of our language skills are the result of complicated neural dynamics and can be traced through both cortical and subcortical regions [31].

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... disjunction.^8.4

This is an oversimplification. There might be a use of that sentence which seeks only a yes/no response, but such a use would require a distinct prosody or some additional such modification as to

Is it either in the drawer or in the laundry.

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